Cablegate: Canada's 2010 Investment Climate Statement

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TAGS: OPIC KTDB USTR ETRD EINV
SUBJECT: Canada's 2010 Investment Climate Statement

A.1. Openness to Foreign Investment

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Strong economic fundamentals, proximity to the U.S. market, highly
skilled employees, and abundant resources are key attractions for
American investors in Canada. With few exceptions, Canada offers
full national treatment to foreign investors within the context of
a developed open market economy operating with democratic
principles and institutions. Canada is, however, one of the few
OECD countries that still has a formal investment review process.
Foreign investment is also prohibited or restricted in several
sectors of the economy.

Canada's economic development relies on foreign investment flows to
a significant extent. The Canadian government estimates that
foreign investors control about one quarter of Canada's
nonfinancial corporate assets. The stock of global foreign direct
investment in Canada stood at C$504.9 billion in 2008, an increase
of 13.6 billion from 2007. U.S. investment accounted for 58
percent of the total (the same as 2007). However, for the first
year ever Canadian direct investment to the United States exceeded
US investment to Canada (by C$17.1 billion at the end of 2008).

The United States and Canada agree on important foreign investment
principles, including right of establishment and national
treatment. The 1989 Free Trade Agreement (FTA) recognized that a
hospitable and secure investment climate is necessary to achieve
the full benefits of reducing barriers to trade in goods and
services. The FTA established a framework of investment principles
sensitive to U.S. and Canadian interests while assuring that
investment flowed freely between the two countries and investors
were treated in a fair and equitable manner. The FTA provided
higher review thresholds for U.S. investment in Canada than for
other foreign investors, but the agreement did not exempt all
American investment from review nor did the agreement override
specific foreign investment prohibitions, notably in "cultural
industries" (e.g., publishing, film, music).

The 1994 North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) incorporated
the gains made in the FTA, expanded the coverage of the Investment
chapter to several new areas, and broadened the definition of
investors' rights. The NAFTA also created the right to binding
investor-state dispute settlement arbitration in specific
situations.

-- Legal Framework: The Investment Canada Act

Since 1985, foreign investment policy in Canada has been guided by
the Investment Canada Act (ICA), which replaced the more
restrictive Foreign Investment Review Act. The ICA liberalized
policy on foreign investment by recognizing that investment is
central to economic growth and key to technological advancement.
The ICA also provided for review of large acquisitions by
non-Canadians and imposed a requirement that these investments be
of "net benefit" to Canada. For the vast majority of small
acquisitions, as well as the establishment of new businesses,
foreign investors need only notify the Canadian government of their
investment.

The threshold for investments subject to ICA review was increased
in 2009 to C$312 million for WTO Members. (Indirect control
acquisitions by WTO Members do not have to be reviewed.) For
non-WTO Members, the threshold remains at C$5 million for direct
control and C$50 million for indirect control acquisitions. From
November 2008 to the end of October 2009, 371 foreign acquisitions
were notified to Industry Canada, of which less than 10 percent
were subject to review.

Investment in specific sectors is covered by the special

legislation. For example, foreign investment in the financial
sector is administered by the federal Department of Finance Canada.
Investment in any activity related to Canada's cultural heritage or
national identity is administered by the Department of Canadian
Heritage. Under provisions of Canada's Telecommunications Act,
foreign ownership of transmission facilities is limited to 20
percent direct ownership and 33 percent through a holding company,
for an effective limit of 46.7 percent total foreign ownership.
The Broadcast Act governs foreign investment in radio and
television broadcasting. (See below for more detail on these
restrictions).

In addition to federal regulation, investment in Canada is also
subject to provincial jurisdiction. Restrictions on foreign
investment differ by province, but are largely confined to the
purchase of land and to provincially regulated financial services.
Provincial government policies relating to, inter alia, culture,
language, labor relations or the environment, can be a factor for
foreign investors.

U.S. foreign direct investment in Canada is subject to provisions
of the Investment Canada Act, the WTO, and the NAFTA. Chapter 11
of the NAFTA ensures that future regulation of the U.S. investors
in Canada (and Canadian investors in the United States) results in
treatment no different than that extended to domestic investors
within each country, i.e., "national treatment." Both governments
are free to regulate the ongoing operation of business enterprises
in their respective jurisdictions provided the governments accord
national treatment to both U.S. and Canadian investors.

Existing U.S. and Canadian laws, policies, and practices were
"grandfathered" under the NAFTA except where specific changes were
required. The "grandfathering" froze various exceptions to
national treatment provided in Canadian and U.S. law, such as
foreign ownership restrictions in the communications and
transportation industries The Canadian government retains the
right to review the acquisition of firms in Canada by U.S.
investors at the levels applicable to other WTO members and has
required changes before approving some investments.

The U.S. and Canadian governments are free to tax foreign-owned
companies on a different basis from domestic firms, provided this
does not result in arbitrary or unjustifiable discrimination. The
governments can also exempt the sale of Crown (government owned)
corporations from any national treatment obligations. Finally, the
two governments retain some flexibility in the application of
national treatment obligations. They need not extend identical
treatment, as long as the treatment is "equivalent."

-- Services Trade

Bilateral services trade is largely free of restrictions, and the
NAFTA ensures that restrictions will not be applied in the future.
However, preexisting restrictions, such as those in the financial
sector, were not eliminated by the NAFTA. The NAFTA services
agreement is primarily a code of principles that establishes
national treatment, right of establishment, right of commercial
presence, and transparency for a number of service sectors
specifically enumerated in annexes to the NAFTA. The NAFTA also
commits both governments to expand the list of covered service
sectors (except for the financial services covered by NAFTA Chapter
14).

-- Federal Procurement

NAFTA grants U.S. firms that operate from the United States
national treatment for most Canadian federal procurement
opportunities. Interprovincial trade barriers, however, mean that
U.S. firms established in one Canadian province can be prevented
from bidding on another province's procurement opportunities. As a

first step in the ongoing and difficult process of reducing trade
barriers within Canada, the Canadian federal, provincial, and
territorial governments negotiated the Agreement on Internal Trade
(AIT) that came into effect on July 1, 1995. The Agreement
provides a framework for dealing with intra-Canada trade in ten
specific sectors and establishes a formal process for resolving
trade disputes. In January 2009, the provinces expanded the AIT to
include improvements for labor mobility and dispute resolution.

In an attempt to further reduce interprovincial trade barriers, the
provinces of British Columbia and Alberta signed a Trade,
Investment, and Labor Mobility Agreement (TILMA) in 2006 to ensure
that any provincial measures will not "operate to impair or
restrict trade between or through the territory of the Parties, or
investment or labor mobility between the Parties." The Agreement
came into force in April 2009.

Besides the areas described above, the NAFTA includes provisions
that enhance the ability of U.S. investors to enforce their rights
through international arbitration; prohibit a broad range of
performance requirements, including forced technology transfer, and
expand coverage of the NAFTA investment chapter to include
portfolio and intangible investments, as well as direct investment.

-- Investment in Cultural Industries

Canada defines cultural industries to include: the publication,
distribution or sale of books, magazines, periodicals or
newspapers, other than the sole activity of printing or
typesetting; the production, distribution, sale or exhibition of
film or video recording, or audio or video music recordings; the
publication, distribution or sale of music in print or
machine-readable form; and any radio, television and cable
television broadcasting undertakings and any satellite programming
and broadcast network services.

The Investment Canada Act requires that foreign investment in the
book publishing and distribution sector be compatible with Canadian
national cultural policies and be of "net benefit" to Canada.
Takeovers of Canadian-owned and controlled distribution businesses
are not allowed. The establishment of new film distribution
companies in Canada is permitted only for importation and
distribution of proprietary products. Direct and indirect
takeovers of foreign distribution businesses operating in Canada
are permitted only if the investor undertakes to reinvest a portion
of its Canadian earnings in Canada.

The Broadcasting Act sets out the policy objectives of enriching
and strengthening the cultural, political, social, and economic
fabric of Canada. The Canadian Radio-television and
Telecommunications Commission (CRTC) administers broadcasting
policy. Under current CRTC policy, in cases where a Canadian
service is licensed in a format competitive with that of an
authorized non-Canadian service, the commission can drop the
non-Canadian service if a new Canadian applicant requests it to do
so. Licenses will not be granted or renewed to firms that do not
have at least 80 percent Canadian control, represented both by
shareholding and by representation on the firms' board of
directors.

While Canada allows up to 100 percent foreign equity in an
enterprise to publish, distribute and sell periodicals, all foreign
investments in this industry are subject to review by the Minister
for Canadian Heritage, and investments may not occur through
acquisition of a Canadian-owned enterprise. No more than 18
percent of the total advertising space in foreign periodicals
exported to Canada may be aimed primarily at the Canadian market.
Canadian advertisers may place advertisements in foreign-owned
periodicals, and may claim a tax deduction for the advertising
costs, including in cases where the periodical is a Canadian issue
of foreign-owned periodical. One-half of advertising costs may be
deducted in the case of publications with zero to 79 percent

original editorial content, and the full cost of advertising may be
deducted in the case of publications with advertising may be
deducted in the case of publications with 80 percent or more
original editorial content.

This regime is the result of a 1999 agreement between the United
States and Canada, which balanced U.S. publishers' desire for
access to the Canadian market against Canada's desire to ensure
that Canadian advertising expenditures support the production of
Canadian editorial content.

-- Investment in the Financial Sector

Canada is open to foreign investment in the banking, insurance, and
securities brokerage sectors, but there are barriers to foreign
investment in retail banking. Foreign financial firms interested
in investing submit their applications to the Office of the
Superintendent of Financial Institutions (OSFI) for approval by the
Minister of Finance. U.S. firms are present in all three sectors,
but play secondary roles. Canadian banks have been much more
aggressive in entering the U.S. retail banking market because there
are no barriers that limit access. Although U.S. and other foreign
banks have long been able to establish banking subsidiaries in
Canada, no U.S. banks have retail banking operations in Canada,
which is regarded as a fairly "saturated" market. Several U.S.
financial institutions have established branches in Canada, chiefly
targeting commercial lending, investment banking, and niche markets
such as credit card issuance.

Chapter 14 of the NAFTA deals specifically with the financial
services sector, and eliminates discriminatory asset and capital
restrictions on U.S. bank subsidiaries in Canada. The NAFTA also
exempts U.S. firms and investors from the federal "10/25" rule so
that they will be treated the same as Canadian firms. The "10/25"
rule prevents any non-NAFTA, nonresident entity from acquiring more
than ten percent of the shares (and all such entities collectively
from acquiring more than 25 percent of the shares) of a federally
regulated, Canadian-controlled financial institution. In 2001, the
Canadian government raised the ten percent limit for single,
non-NAFTA shareholders to 20 percent. Several provinces, however,
including Ontario and Quebec, have similar "10/25" rules for
provincially chartered trust and insurance companies that were not
waived under the NAFTA.

-- Investment in Other Sectors

Commercial Aviation: Currently Canada limits foreign ownership of
Canadian air carriers to 25 percent of voting equity. In addition,
foreigners may own nonvoting equity subject to the overall
requirement that they are not permitted to control a Canadian air
carrier. The recently signed Canada-EU Aviation Agreement
envisions changes to Canadian legislation that will allow up to a
49 percent foreign stake in Canadian airlines; but this will
require action by the parliament and no specific date for the new
limits to come into force have been announced.

General Aviation: No non-Canadian (other than permanent residents)
may register a general aviation aircraft for commercial or personal
use in Canada.

Energy and Mining: Generally foreigners cannot be majority owners
of uranium mines.

Telecommunications: Under provisions of Canada's
Telecommunications Act, direct foreign ownership of Type 1 carriers

(owners/operators of transmission facilities) is limited to 20
percent. Ownership and control rules are more flexible for holding
companies that wish to invest in Canadian carriers. Under these

rules, two thirds of the holding company's equity must be owned and
controlled by Canadians.

Fishing: Foreigners can own up to 49 percent of companies that
hold Canadian commercial fishing licenses.

Electric Power Generation and Distribution: Regulatory reform in
electricity continues in Canada in expectation that increased
competition will lower costs of electricity supply. Province-owned
power firms are also interested in gaining greater access to the
U.S. power market. Since power markets fall under the competency
of the Canadian provinces, they are at the forefront of the reform
effort. The reforms will also help to further integrate the U.S.
and Canadian electricity markets.

Real Estate: Primary responsibility for property law rests with
the provinces. Prince Edward Island, Saskatchewan, and Nova Scotia
all limit real estate sales to out-of-province parties. There is
no constitutional protection for property rights in Canada.
Consequently, government authorities can expropriate property after
paying appropriate compensation.

Privatization: Federal and provincial privatizations are
considered on a case-by-case basis, and there are no overall
limitations with regard to foreign ownership. As an example, the
federal Department of Transport did not impose any limitations in
the 1995 privatization of Canadian National Railway, whose majority
shareholders are now U.S. persons.

-- Investment Incentives

Federal and provincial governments in Canada offer a wide array of
investment incentives that municipalities are generally prohibited
from doing. None of the federal incentives are specifically aimed
at promoting or discouraging foreign investment in Canada. The
incentives are designed to advance broader policy goals, such as
boosting research and development or promoting regional economies.
The funds are available to any qualified Canadian or foreign
investor who agrees to use the monies for the stated purpose. For
example, Export Development Canada can support inbound investment
under certain specific conditions (e.g., investment must be
export-focused; export contracts must be in hand or companies have
a track record; there is a world or regional product mandate for
the product to be produced).

Provincial incentives tend to be more investor-specific and are
conditioned on applying the funds to an investment in the granting
province. Provincial incentives may also be restricted to firms
established in the province or that agree to establish a facility
in the province. Government officials at both the federal and
provincial levels expect investors who receive investment
incentives to use them for the agreed purpose, but no enforcement
mechanism exists.

Incentives for investment in cultural industries, at both the
federal and provincial level, are generally available only to
Canadian-controlled firms. Incentives may take the form of grants,
loans, loan guarantees, venture capital, or tax credits. Incentive
programs in Canada generally are not oriented toward export
promotion. Provincial incentive programs for film production in
Canada are available to foreign filmmakers.

-- Canada's Ranking in Selected Business Indices

Index

Year

Metric

Ranking

TI Corruption Index

2009

CPI Score 8.7

8

Heritage Economic Freedom

2009

Overall Score 80.5

7

WB Ease of Doing Business

2009

8

(MCC Indices Not Applicable)

A.2. Conversion and Transfer Policies

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The Canadian dollar is fully convertible. The Canadian government
provides some incentives for Canadian investment in developing
countries through Canadian International Development Agency (CIDA)
programs. Canada's official export credit agency, the Export
Development Corporation (EDC), provides political risk insurance to
Canadian companies with investments in foreign countries and to
lenders who finance transactions pursued by Canadian companies
abroad.

A.3. Expropriation and Compensation

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Canadian federal and provincial laws recognize both the right of
the government to expropriate private property for a public
purpose, and the obligation to pay compensation. The federal
government has not nationalized any foreign firm since the
nationalization of Axis property during World War II. Both the
federal and provincial governments have assumed control of private
firms usually financially distressed ones after reaching agreement
with the former owners. In December 2008, the province of
Newfoundland and Labrador acted to take control of assets relating
to a U.S. company's operations in the province. The action raised
questions as to whether the province was expropriating rights and
assets of the company - possibly without compensation.

A.4. Dispute Settlement

-------------------------------

Canada is a member of the New York Convention of 1958 on the
Recognition and Enforcement of Foreign Arbitral Awards. The
Canadian government has made a decision in principle to become a
member of the international Center for the Settlement of Investment
Disputes (ICSID). However, since the ICSID legal enforcement
mechanism requires provincial legislation, the federal government
must also obtain agreement from the provinces that they will
enforce ICSID decisions. Although most provinces have endorsed the
agreement, full agreement is unlikely in the foreseeable future.

Canada accepts binding arbitration of investment disputes to which
it is a party only when it has specifically agreed to do so through
a bilateral or multilateral agreement, such as a Foreign Investment
Protection Agreement (see below). The provisions of Chapter 11 of
the NAFTA guide the resolution of investment disputes between NAFTA
persons and the NAFTA member governments. The NAFTA encourages
parties to settle disputes through consultation or negotiation. It
also establishes special arbitration procedures for investment
disputes, separate from arbitration procedures, for investment
disputes separate from the NAFTA's general dispute settlement
provisions.

Under the NAFTA, a narrow range of disputes dealing with government
monopolies and expropriation between an investor from a NAFTA
country and a NAFTA government may be settled, at the investor's
option, by binding international arbitration. An investor who
seeks binding arbitration in a dispute with a NAFTA party gives up
his right to seek redress through the court system of the NAFTA
party, except for proceedings seeking nonmonetary damages.

A.5. Performance Requirements and Incentives

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The NAFTA prohibits the United States or Canada from imposing
export or domestic content performance requirements, and Canada
does not explicitly negotiate performance requirements with foreign
investors. For investments subject to review, however, the
investor's intentions regarding employment, resource processing,
domestic content, exports, and technology development or transfer
can be examined by the Canadian government. Investment reviews
often lead to negotiation of a package of specific "undertakings,"
such as agreement to promote Canadian products. In 2009, the
Government of Canada filed a suit in the Canadian courts against
U.S. Steel alleging that the company had failed to fulfill its
undertaking to maintain minimum employment levels in exchange for
permission to acquire a Canadian steel mill.

A.6. Right to Private Ownership and Establishment

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Investors have full rights to private ownership.

A.7. Protection of Property Rights

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Foreigner investors have full and fair access to Canada's legal
system, with private property right limited only by the rights of
governments to establish monopolies and to expropriate for public
purposes. Investors from NAFTA countries have mechanisms available

to them for dispute resolution regarding property expropriation by
the Government of Canada.

Canada has yet to ratify key treaties that protect copyright works
on the Internet (the World Intellectual Property Organization)
(WIPO) "Internet Treaties") that the government signed in 1997.
Refer to the copyright section of this report for more details. U.
S. (and many Canadian) companies have complained that Canada's
enforcement regime against counterfeiting and piracy, both at the
border and internally, is cumbersome and ineffective and further
hampered law enforcement officials' legal restrictions from sharing
information with rights holders.

A.8 Transparency of the Regulatory System

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The transparency of Canada's regulatory system is similar to that
of the United States. Proposed legislation is subject to
parliamentary debate and public hearings, and regulations are
issued in draft form for public comment prior to implementation.
While federal and/or provincial licenses or permits may be needed
to engage in economic activities, regulation of these activities is
generally for statistical or tax compliance reasons. The Bureau of
Competition Policy and the Competition Tribunal, a quasi -judicial
body, enforce Canada's antitrust legislation.

A.9. Efficient Capital Markets and Portfolio Investment

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---

Canada's capital markets are open, accessible, and without onerous
regulatory requirements. Foreign investors are able to get credit
in the local market. In 2008 and 2009, the World Economic Forum
and Moody's Investor Service ranked Canada's banking system as the
"most sound" in the world, and first in the world for financial
strength, respectively. Canadian banking stability is linked to
high capitalization rates that are well above the norms set by the
Bank for International Settlements.

The Canadian banking industry includes 22 domestic banks, 26
foreign bank subsidiaries and 22 full-service foreign bank branches
and seven foreign bank lending branches operating in Canada. In
total, these institutions manage close to C$2.9 trillion in assets.
Many large international banks have a presence in Canada through a
subsidiary, representative office or branch of the parent bank.

In Canada, the regulation of defensive tactics against hostile
takeovers is handled by provincial securities regulators rather
than the courts. Canadian regulators have adopted a National
Policy regarding takeovers that seeks to encourage open and
unrestricted auctions to maximize target company shareholder value
and choice between competing alternatives. The nationality of the
bidding entity is not considered by the provincial securities
regulators but trigger a federal review under the Investment Canada
Act.

While cross-shareholding arrangements are permitted in Canada, the
extent of foreign investment and cross-border M&A activity suggests
that they do not pose any practical barriers.

A.10. Competition from State-Owned Enterprises

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Canada has around 100 state-owned enterprises (SOEs), however the
vast majority of assets are held by four federal crown
corporations: Canada Mortgage and Housing Corporation; Farm Credit
Canada; Business Development Bank of Canada; and Export Development
Canada. The Treasury Board Secretariat provides an annual report
to Parliament regarding the governance and performance of Canada's
crown corporations and other corporate interests.

There are no restrictions on the ability of private enterprises to
compete with SOEs. However, the functions of most Canadian crown
corporations have limited appeal to the private sector, e.g. the
Canadian Space Agency. However, the activities of some SOEs such
as VIA Rail and Canada Post do overlap with private enterprise. As
such, they are subject to the rules of the Competition Act to
prevent abuse of dominance and other anti-competitive practices.
Foreign investors are also able to challenge SOEs under the NAFTA
and WTO.

Canada does not have a sovereign wealth fund but the province of
Alberta has the Heritage Savings Trust Fund established through
province's share of petroleum royalties. The fund's value was
approximately C$15 billion in 2009. It is invested in a globally
diversified portfolio of public and private equity, fixed income
and real assets.

A.11. Corporate Social Responsibility

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The Government of Canada encourages Canadian companies to observe
the OECD Guidelines for Multinational Enterprises in their
operations abroad and provides a National Contact Point for dealing
with issues that arise in relation to Canadian companies. Despite
the increased level of official attention paid to CSR, the
activities of Canadian mining companies abroad remain the subject
of critical attention and have prompted calls for the government to
move beyond voluntary measures.

A.12. Political Violence

------------------------------

Political violence occurs in Canada to about the same extent as in
the United States. For example, protest at the North American
Leaders, Summit in Montebello, QC in August 2007 led to
confrontation between police and protesters.

A.13. Corruption

----------------------

On an international scale, corruption in Canada is low and similar
to that found in the United States. In general, the type of due
diligence that would be required in the United States to avoid
corrupt practices would be appropriate in Canada. Canada is a
party to the UN Convention Against Corruption. Canada is also a
party to the OECD Convention on Combating Bribery of Foreign Public
Officials in International Business Transactions, as well as the

Inter-American Convention Against Corruption.

.

A.14. Bilateral Investment Treaties

--------------------------------------------

While the terms of the FTA and NAFTA guide investment relations
between Canada and the United States, Canada has also negotiated
international investment agreements with non-NAFTA parties. These
agreements, known as Foreign Investment Protection Agreements
(FIPAs), are bilateral treaties that promote and protect foreign
investment through a system of legally binding rights and
obligation based on the same principles found in the NAFTA. Canada
has negotiated FIPAs with countries in Central Europe, Latin
America, Africa, and Asia, and has over 100 international tax
treaties in force.

A.15. OPIC and Other Investment Insurance Programs

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--

Because Canada is a developed country, the U.S. Overseas Private
Investment Corporation does not operate in Canada.

A.16. Labor

----------------

The federal government and provincial/territorial governments share
jurisdiction for labor regulation and standards. Federal employees
and those employed in the railroad, airline, and banking sector are
covered under the federally administered Canada Labor Code.
Employees in most other sectors come under provincial labor codes.
As the laws vary somewhat from one jurisdiction to another, it is
advisable to contact a federal or provincial labor office for
specifics, such as minimum wage and benefit requirements. The
global economic crisis of 2008-2009 was accompanied by job loss
across the country, particularly in manufacturing and construction.
Canada's unemployment rate stood at 8.5 percent at the end of 2009,
up from years of relative stability between 6 and 6.5 percent.

Figures for 2008 show the proportion of union membership among
those in paid, nonagricultural employment at 29.4 percent. Overall
union membership reflected a 16.3 percent unionized rate in the
private sector and a 71 percent unionized rate in the public
sector.

A.17. Foreign Trade Zones/Free Ports

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Under the NAFTA, Canada operated as a free trade zone for products
made in the United States. U.S. made goods enter Canada duty free.

A.18. Foreign Direct Investment Statistics

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The United States has long been Canada's top target for foreign
investment, and Canada is the third largest recipient of U.S.
direct investment after the United Kingdom and the Netherlands.
About 58 percent of Canada's foreign direct investment comes from
the United States. At the end of 2008, Canada hosted some C$293.6
billion in U.S. direct foreign investment abroad. U.S. investors
with large direct investments in Canada include major automakers
(GM, Ford, Chrysler), integrated energy, chemical and mineral
producers (e.g., ExxonMobil, ChevronTexaco, ConocoPhillips),
financial services firms (e.g., Citibank), and retailers (e.g.,
Wal-Mart). In terms of inward FDI performance, Canada attracted
3.2 per cent of the world's FDI in 2008 and accounted for 1.9 per
cent of world GDP.

Canadian residents have become increasingly active as worldwide
investors, and their net international liabilities have been
shrinking over the past decade relative to national income. The
United States is the top destination for Canadian foreign direct
investment. In 2008, with total investment around C$310 billion,
Canada took the top spot as the largest source of FDI to the United
States. Other major destinations for Canadian FDI are the United
Kingdom, other European Union countries, Brazil, Australia and
Chile.
JACOBSON

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